Changes to land use can directly heighten the risk of diseases spreading from animals to humans, new University of Stirling led research has shown.

A study led by Dr Adam Fell of the University’s Faculty of Natural Sciences shows that deforestation, farming, fast‑growing cities and fragmented habitats heighten the risk of zoonotic diseases such as Covid‑19 and malaria, especially those spread by mosquitoes, rodents and bats, spreading.
These changes can bring people and wildlife closer together and disrupt natural ecological barriers that usually limit disease transmission.

Dr Fell explained: “As humans increasingly alter natural landscapes, people and wildlife are coming into closer contact. This can make it easier for new diseases to emerge or for existing ones to spread. At the same time, there is growing global investment in restoring degraded environments to help tackle climate change and biodiversity loss.

“However, we still know surprisingly little about whether restoration reduces disease risks – or, in some cases, could unintentionally increase them temporarily. This study shows that decisions about how we use and restore land can directly affect human health.

“As governments and organisations invest heavily in ecosystem restoration worldwide, understanding how these actions influence disease risk is essential to avoid unintended health consequences and to maximise long-term benefits.”

Researchers brought together evidence from across the world to identify where land‑use change increases disease risk, where restoration could help reduce it and where key knowledge gaps remain.

The study, which is part of the RESTOREID (Restoring Ecosystems to Stop the Threat of Re-Emerging Infectious Disease) project, showed that some actions, such as protecting wetlands and conserving existing natural habitats, were frequently linked to lower risks of mosquito-borne diseases.

In contrast, certain forms of tree planting or reforestation were shown to increase risk during early recovery stages, particularly for mosquito or tick-borne diseases.

The study also found that most research on this topic to date has been carried out in wealthier countries, even though many of the major disease issues are in lower‑income regions. This means large parts of Africa, Southeast Asia and Latin America, where land‑use change and disease risk are both high, haven’t been studied in enough detail.

Researchers identified 50 priority locations worldwide where new research would be most valuable, and developed an open online atlas for policymakers and public health officials to better target future action.

Dr Fell continued: “This work has highlighted a major gap in global knowledge. By identifying priority areas for future research and providing an open, interactive online evidence atlas, the study offers practical tools to help policymakers, conservation practitioners, and public health officials plan restoration in ways that protect both people and nature.

“The findings support a One Health approach, showing that environmental restoration, when carefully designed and monitored, can be part of the solution to reducing future disease risks rather than adding to them.”

RESTOREID Scientific Lead, Dr Luci Kirkpatrick of Bangor University added “This work is vitally important in demonstrating how biodiversity fosters healthy landscapes for humans. It shows that biodiversity is not just integral to clean water or reducing the impacts of climate change, it is the foundation of our future health. Restoration, done well, is a vital tool in tackling the drivers of future pandemic spillovers.”

The research team systematically reviewed and analysed studies from around the world published between 2000 and 2024 that examined how land-use change and ecosystem restoration affect the risk of diseases spreading from animals to people.

They then combined peer-reviewed research with case studies and policy reports, mapped where studies have been carried out globally, and analysed patterns across different regions, diseases, and types of land-use change. Spatial modelling was used to identify places where future research would be most valuable to develop the interactive online atlas.

The study Global evidence synthesis on land-use change and zoonotic risks was published in Nature Sustainability. Work was carried out in collaboration with Bangor University, with contributions from the Alternet–EKLIPSE network and the International Society for Infectious Diseases.

It builds on previous work supported by the European Commission through the EKLIPSE Biodiversity and Pandemics initiative, reflecting close collaboration across ecology, public health, and policy communities.

Work was supported by funding from the EU Horizon Scheme as part of the RESTOREID (Restoring Ecosystems to Stop the Threat of Re-Emerging Infectious Disease) project.