Human healthy aging and longevity are complex phenomena influenced by a dynamic interplay of genetic, epigenetic, metabolic, immune, and environmental factors. Long-lived individuals (LLIs), particularly centenarians, serve as valuable models for understanding these mechanisms due to their ability to delay or avoid age-related diseases. This overview synthesizes current insights into the multifaceted determinants of exceptional longevity, highlighting key findings from studies on LLIs across diverse populations.
LLIs, defined as individuals surviving beyond 90 years, exhibit distinct characteristics such as reduced morbidity, delayed onset of chronic diseases, and preserved physiological functions. They often cluster in “longevity blue zones” like Okinawa and Sardinia, where lifestyle and environmental factors interact with genetic predispositions. Gender differences are evident, with females comprising most centenarians, though male centenarians tend to have fewer age-related diseases. LLIs can be categorized into “escapers,” “delayers,” and “survivors” based on disease history, reflecting heterogeneous pathways to longevity.
Genetic factors contribute significantly to longevity, with familial clustering indicating a heritable component. Key nuclear genomic variants include APOE ε2 (protective against cardiovascular disease and Alzheimer’s), FOXO3A (linked to oxidative stress resistance and DNA repair), and SIRT6 (involved in genome maintenance). Mitochondrial haplogroups like J and D are associated with reduced oxidative stress, while telomere maintenance genes (hTERT, TERC) ensure chromosome stability. However, genome-wide association studies (GWAS) highlight APOE and FOXO3A as the most consistently linked genes across populations, underscoring their pivotal roles.
Epigenetic mechanisms bridge genetics and environment. DNA methylation patterns in LLIs show delayed age-related methylation loss, particularly in heterochromatin regions, which may stabilize genome integrity. Noncoding RNAs, such as miR-363* and lncRNAs THBS1-IT1/AS1, regulate cellular senescence and gene expression, contributing to healthy aging. These epigenetic signatures correlate with younger biological age and reduced disease risk in LLIs and their offspring.
Metabolic profiles in LLIs are characterized by favorable lipid metabolism (low LDL cholesterol, high HDL), reduced insulin resistance, and enhanced antioxidant capacity. Endocrine factors like low thyroid hormone levels and preserved sex hormones (estradiol in females, testosterone in males) play protective roles. Caloric restriction (CR), a well-established longevity intervention in model organisms, mimics metabolic states in LLIs, improving glucose tolerance and reducing inflammation. CR mimetics, such as metformin and resveratrol, show promise in translating these benefits to humans without dietary restriction.
Immune system alterations in LLIs include reduced chronic inflammation (“inflammaging”) and preserved immune cell function. Centenarians exhibit lower IL-6 levels, higher TGF-β and IL-10 (anti-inflammatory cytokines), and maintained T-cell proliferation and natural killer cell activity. The balance between pro-inflammatory Th17 cells and regulatory T cells (Tregs) shifts toward anti-inflammatory states, contributing to disease resistance.
Environmental and lifestyle factors are equally critical. Gut microbiota in LLIs features increased diversity and enrichment of health-promoting taxa like Akkermansia muciniphila and Bifidobacterium, which enhance gut barrier function and produce anti-aging metabolites. Plant-based diets rich in vegetables, whole grains, and nuts correlate with lower risk of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegeneration. Regular physical activity, particularly endurance and strength training, improves metabolic health and extends lifespan through mechanisms like mitochondrial biogenesis and reduced oxidative stress. Other key lifestyle factors include non-smoking, moderate alcohol intake, adequate sleep, and stress management, which collectively reduce mortality risk.
Socioeconomic and medical advancements, such as improved sanitation, vaccination, and healthcare, have significantly increased average life expectancy, though genetic and epigenetic factors determine exceptional longevity. Future research leveraging multi-omics (transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics) on large LLI cohorts will deepen understanding of interactive mechanisms. Functional studies in model organisms and clinical trials of longevity-promoting interventions (e.g., probiotics, CR mimetics) are essential to translate findings into therapeutic strategies.
In summary, human longevity emerges from a synergistic interplay of genetic resilience, epigenetic stability, metabolic adaptability, immune balance, and healthy lifestyles. LLIs exemplify how these factors converge to delay aging and disease, offering actionable insights for promoting healthspan. As global aging populations grow, unraveling these mechanisms holds promise for developing personalized interventions to extend both lifespan and quality of life.
DOI: 10.1007/s11684-024-1120-4